Tenontosaurus - Facts and Figures

Name: Tenontosaurus (Greek for tendon lizard); pronounced ten-NON-toe-SORE-us Habitat: Woodlands of North America Historical Period: Middle Cretaceous (120-100 million years ago) Size and Weight: About 20 feet long and two tons Diet: Plants Distinguishing Characteristics: Narrow head; unusually long tail About Tenontosaurus Some dinosaurs are more famous for how they got eaten than for how they actually lived. That’s the case with Tenontosaurus, a medium-sized ornithopod that was on the lunch menu of the respectably sized raptor Deinonychus (we know this from the discovery of a Tenontosaurus skeleton surrounded by numerous Deinonychus bones; apparently predators and prey were all killed at the same time by a natural cataclysm). Because an adult Tenontosaurus could weigh in at a couple of tons, smaller raptors like Deinonychus must have had to hunt in packs to bring it down. Other than its role as prehistoric lunch meat, the middle Cretaceous Tenontosaurus was most interesting for its unusually long tail, which was suspended off the ground by a network of specialized tendons (hence this dinosaurs name, which is Greek for tendon lizard). The type specimen of Tenontosaurus was discovered in 1903 during an American Museum of Natural History expedition to Montana led by the famous paleontologist Barnum Brown; decades later, John H. Ostrom did a closer analysis of this ornithopod, corollary to his intensive study of Deinonychus (which he concluded was ancestral to modern birds). Oddly enough, Tenontosaurus is the most abundant plant-eating dinosaur to be represented in a vast stretch of the Cloverly Formation in the western U.S.; the only herbivore thats even close is the armored dinosaur Sauropelta. Whether this corresponds to the actual ecology of middle Cretaceous North America, or is just a quirk of the fossilization process, remains a mystery.

Essay Princess Diana - 1202 Words

One year ago, the death of a princess brought an entire world to tears. The wounds are slowly healing and the grief is less painful. What remains are the lessons that can be learned from a phenomenon that few can entirely forget. At the time it was a mystery. A divorced member of the royal family of a medium-sized European nation dies in a banal car accident in Paris, and for a week the sun, moon and stars are knocked off their appointed tracks. Within days, Europe suffers a shortage of cut flowers as tens of thousands of bouquets are laid before the house of the victim. Demand for newsprint soars; the funeral, watched live on television throughout the world, attracts an audience of 1 billion. A few years later, the mystery remains. What†¦show more content†¦96). Now the charities with which she was still associated - Centrepoint, The English National Ballet, Great Ormond Street Childrens Hospital, The Leprosy Mission, The National Aids Trust and The Royal Marsden Hospital NHS Trust, are facing up to a future without a patron whose backing was impossible to evaluate. A spokeswoman for Great Ormond Street Hospital, with which the princess had been involved since 1987, said: quot;Her support was invaluable and incalculable.quot; quot;Id like to be a queen of peoples hearts.† Princess Diana (BBC TV interview). Diana was patron of the National AIDS Trust and helped put their work in front of the public, as well as raising many thousands of pounds to help them do it. She was president of the Royal Marsden NHS Trust at the London cancer hospital; she had an interest in patients and research. On one of her trips to Chicago raised $800,000 for the hospital, and the auction of her clothes in New York brought in another  £1 million. Diana was Fund President of London’s Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children. â€Å"On many official or private visits to wards, she sought out the shyest child for her special attention† (2, pg. 97) Children were Diana’s delight, she always wanted a little girl. When one little eight-year-old girl Danielle first met the princess, she had no idea of the identity of the special person who was to visit the Rose Ward ofShow MoreRelatedPrincess Diana 2268 Words   |  10 Pagesextravagant. The whole palace was made of the finest materials, it was beautiful. The roof was even made of gold. Despite the royal family’s golden exterior with love for one another and their children, I saw the real Prince and Princess of Wales. I often had time to talk to Princess Diana, although she preferred when I called her Di ( Tompson 1). While Diana’s life was cut too short, every minute that she was alive was exciting, the outfits, the press, and the charities. People could not get enough of herRead More Princess Diana Spencer1421 Words   |  6 PagesPrincess Diana Spencer As I relax on a Sunday evening, breathe in fresh air before I enter my chamber, I catch a glimpse of something magically beautiful. With a long silk blue dress and a pearl-diamond tiara on her golden hair, the Lady, the Princess, the beauty of the world walks down the steps to the cheering crowds. She gives hope to her people when there is none. Sitting here, I feel her warm smile full of love and joy. This is my Diana, the light of this world! Diana’s childhood was fullRead MorePrincess Diana Essay534 Words   |  3 PagesPrincess Diana Princess Diana, also known as Princess of Wales was born on July 1, 1961 at Park House near Sandringham, Norfolk. Her parents, who were married in 1954, were separated when Diana was 13 years old in 1967. Their marriage was dissolved 2 years later in 1969. Dianas mother later married Earl Spencer, who was the Countess of Dartmouth in 1976. Diana was living with her dad with her siblings Sarah, Jane, and Charles. She lived there until her grandfather, Earl Spencer the 7thRead More Princess Diana Essay1065 Words   |  5 PagesThroughout Princess Diana’s lifetime she loved, cared, and helped others along the way. She had many accomplishments in life. Such as her children and her many organizations. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Lady Diana Frances Spencer was born on July 1, 1961 at Park House, a residence on the royal estate at Sandringham. She was the third of four children and the youngest daughter. Diana was born to her father Edward John Spencer Viscount Althorp and mother Frances Roche Spencer (King 27). Diana sharedRead MoreEssay on Princess Diana1723 Words   |  7 Pagesyielding herself from the constant harassment and persistence. Princess Diana of Wales always knew how to make an entrance. Rich, poor, famous, and obscure gathered around for a glimpse of the famous Diana, hoping to see her beauty, hoping to see the elegance she carried, hoping for one single glance in their direction. Through all movies and documentaries exposed, the knowledge of Princess Diana has grown extensively to me. Princess Diana’s journey through the media begins with the accident thatRead MorePrincess Diana Essay957 Words   |  4 PagesHearts Throughout her life all eyes were always on Princess Diana. Millions came to identify with her and, when she died, they felt as though they have lost a best friend. Princess Di was known across the world as â€Å"The People’s Princess† and â€Å"The Queen of Our Hearts†. She was one of the most admired and relatable princesses to society. Through her charity and her life struggles, many people can admire and relate to Princess Diana. Princess Diana was involved in nearly 100 charities during her lifeRead More Princess Diana Essay2975 Words   |  12 Pages Princess Diana was born The Honorable Diana Frances Spencer on July 1, 1961. She was the third female child to Viscount and Viscountess Althorp. Diana had two older sisters, Sarah and Jane and one younger brother, Charles. Her family was well off and Diana had a privileged childhood. The Spencer’s made their money as successful sheep traders in the 15th century. With their fortune they built Althorp House in Northamptonshire and acquired a family crest and motto – amp;quot;God defend the rightamp;quot;Read MorePrincess Diana Essay1384 Words   |  6 PagesPrincess Diana Diana Spencer was born July 1, 1961. This date was the start of one of the most remarkable individuals in the world . She was once quoted as saying, One minute I was a nobody the next minute I was Princess of Wales, mother ,member of the royal family and it was too much for one person to handle (Morton story,104). The Princess of Wales struggled throughout her life due to bulimia, an unhappy marriage, and the media. Dianas astrologer, Felix Lyle, quotedRead MorePrincess Diana Essay example1691 Words   |  7 Pagesthe world. Princess Diana influenced millions of people from all over the world, and her legacy will remain forever. Lady Diana Frances Spencer was born at home on July 1, 1961, in Norfolk, England (Morton 70). Her parents were very ashamed that she was a girl. They wanted a boy very badly to keep the Spencer name (Morton 71). Diana had two older sisters and one younger brother. She was always the closest to her brother, Charles, and admired him strongly (Vickers 160). As a child, Diana was somewhatRead MorePrincess Diana - Lady Di Essay1745 Words   |  7 Pagesof flashing lights. Diana Spencer got out of her vehicle to go to one of her many charity organizations. Everyday Lady Spencer had to deal with the public. Lady Diana Francis Spencer led a privileged background. She was born on July 1, 1961. She was supposed to be a boy. But boy were her parents in for a surprise. Diana grew up at Park House in Norfolk. In 1967, When Diana was six, her parents separated. Eventually they were divorced and both of them went on to marry again. Diana and the other children

Role of Students in the Purification of the Society Free Essays

TOPIC: Role of students in the purification of the society. TABLE OF CONTENTS TOPIC: Role of students in the purification of the society * Purpose of education. * Students and their role in the society. We will write a custom essay sample on Role of Students in the Purification of the Society or any similar topic only for you Order Now * Current situation of the society. * Students’ reformers in the past. * Students’ role in the purification of the society. * Conclusion * Refrences ‘’IN THE NAME OF ALLAH ALMIGHTY WHO IS THE MOST GRACIOUS AND MERCIFULL’’ TOPIC: Role of students in the purification of the society â€Å"Those who know cannot be like the ones who do not know. Of course, knowledge and ignorance are like light and darkness which can never be alike. †(Holy QURAN) There are a vast no of students who are studying in thousands of schools, colleges universities. These students can plays a very significant role in the re-building and reconstruction of our nation. This can only happen if their energies are properly channelized. The students had also played in a very important role in the constructive growth of society. The students possess immense youth power. The role of student in a society entails various things. They must should concentrate on studies so that they develop into well-educated individuals that make significant contributions to the society in the future. They must pass on whatever knowledge they have to others. This can take on many forms ranging from helping your siblings to creating awareness about environmental issues such as global warming. They should act as responsible individuals which means to steer clear of any unlawful activities. Students should try and refrain themselves from all such activities for their benefit as well as the society. They must should do their best what they can to protect their environment and society. Students should avoid littering places and should try to invest a few hours into community services if possible so that it could help them to play a constructive part of Their selves in the society so that they are able to face the challenges of life in positive manner. Students should also behave respectfully to the elders of the society and take care of their needs i. e. help an elder to cross a road; stand up and make space for an elder to sit if there is none. By doing little deeds of kindness students could bring reforms in the whole society. The history is full of such examples that whenever a group of students take an initiative then it became the voice of whole nation. Our youth is very much capable and enthusiastic of doing so and by using their mental approach they can convert impossible to possible but for the purification of society students must should be channelized in such a way so that they could be able to play their part for the constructiveness and betterment of society. PURPOSE OF EDUCATION: Education has a great social importance specially in the modern, complex industrialized societies. Philosophers of all periods, beginning with ancient stages, devoted to it a great deal of attention. Some of the significant functions of role of education in society are 1. To complete the socialization process. 2. To transmit the central heritage 3. The formation of social personality. 4. Reformation of attitude. 5. It encourages the spirit of competition. 6. Acts as integrative force that unites different sections of society. 7. Enhances civic sense and rational approach in an individual. . Improve the quality and efficiency of provision and outcomes 9. Promote equity and active citizenship 10. Enhance innovation and creativity at all levels of education and training. Students and their role in society: Every individual has an obligation towards the society. Students is particular can do a lot in this regard. The role of students in a society includes various things. Firstly concentr ate on studies so that they develop into well-educated individual. The next step is to pass on whatever knowledge they have to other creating awareness. A student plays a vital role in the development of society. They developed the society by improving their skills in knowledge of the country. Current situation of the society: Young people are often viewed as lacking the skills needed to become part of the political process. These perceptions are often backed by popular theories on childhood development, many of which define youth as social group that is in the ‘stage of becoming adults’. Young people are not afforded the opportunities to share power with adults in part because they are viewed as lacking the requisite skills. Consequently, they are not invited to the table. The very idea of â€Å"youth citizenship† – young people participating as equals – is a stretch for many adults. The irony is, however, that once at the table, young people are often viewed as a threat to adult power. Rather than work with young people to build the skills, adults either abdicate power or work to control it. This tendency to exclude young people has been well-substantiated in international Therefore ‘youthfulness’ has become a major justification for excluding young people from decision making. It is also important to emphasize that these ideas are also present all major social institutions; from the family, the school, the community; religious institutions etc. It is not a surprise that there are not expectations and processes that facilitate the political participation of young people within their communities as well as at the national level. As now the youth has given a chance to show their constructive abilities in many ways they are also provided with different mediums such as social networking sites, print and electronic media so that they can express their selves in much better way but at a larger medium and at better extent. Student reforms in the past: Students are actually the spine and the base of nation. They are the actual representatives of youth. The history had also proven it that whenever a student moment takes place then it became the voice of each and every person. In the separation of subcontinent and the foundation of Pakistan students had played their vital role. Students played a major role in the Pakistan Movement. This was of great historical significance, for the Muslim students of the subcontinent had never participated in such great numbers in a political movement. It was a befitting culmination of the reformist movements of the late nineteenth century for the emancipation and education of Muslim youth. The Quaid Muhammad Ali Jinnah can be seen as source of inspiration for their emergence as players on the political scene. The recent biggest reform by students emerges in England because of the increasing fee structure in UK, and just because of the reaction of students the government had to take a backward step on this decision. It is very much clear that whenever students put their efforts in any matter then it had its own significance on them. Students’ role in the purification of the society: Students are the future of the country. Through their energy, ability and potential they can bring radical changes not only to the society but also to the country as a whole. They can participate in creating awareness among the people about several issues and can help them in contributing efficiently for the society. They have the power to change the face of the society and hence play a pivotal role in the development of the society. They can purify the society by assessing knowledge and improving personalization skills, motivation ; practices for the formation of a good society and reforming of a civilized nation in to well beings. The synthesis research on achievement motivation, school engagement, and student voice, concluding that the more educators use student-centered approaches to reinforce student agency, the more motivation and engagement are likely to rise. I think this is the only way which makes students more productive so that they can play their part more efficiently and usefully for the society. CONCLUSION: Education is a compulsory factor a nation should have as to make progress in any field of life. In other words Education matters. In is a need of now as to get it as it helps in making a society peaceful, happy, prosperous and helps in many other ways. Children’s gain it as to make their future as also to play a vital role for the development of their nation. Now a days the society has no moral values due to which the students have to play a vital role as to play their part in society. Many institutes are made as for the people to gain knowledge and play a vital role. Our religion also gives stress on the gain of education and by gaining education a man can play a very vital role. In the end I can only say that â€Å"EDUCATION Matters†. REFRENCES: * Purpose of education written by Kim Jones. * Elementary education ; motivation in Islam written by DR. Eeqbal Hassim * Students role in history written by Urwah ibn Zubayr * Possitive youth development written by Micheal J. Nakkula * www. students. com * The social role of university student written by Florian Znaniecki. * Social rights ; duties written by Leslie Stephen. How to cite Role of Students in the Purification of the Society, Essay examples

Paraphrase for Health Care and Space Science- myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theParaphrase for Health Care and Space Science. Answer: Lego thinking and idea is an innovation. The Lego process associated with innovation and unconventional thinking, which is clearly highlighted in the video. This is highlighted in the following summary. Kiddicraft is a company that brought in the idea of innovation and conventional process with various alterations. However Kiddicraft Company took this idea from the Lego Company. After this adoption, the innovation process was tailored fulfilling their needs. The modifications include changes in colours, shapes and sizes. These changes ensured that the requirements of the Lego Company would be fulfilled. The products of Lego are considered to be one of the most innovative products. This is because of the differences in dimension and thinking. The alterations and changes were made, in order to ensure the fulfilment of the needs, along with incorporation of innovation. The Lego innovations adopted by the Lego Company ensure competitive advantages, along with providing recognition to the company. Moreover, these innovations make the products even more suitable and attractive to the next generation. The innovation process is multi-dimensional. It includes innovation based on the buying capability of the consumers, the modes of entertainment, ease of availability of the essential resources along with, the method of playing. The economic condition of the target market is also a determining factor. However, it is true that the innovations were initially made to attract the children. The success that this innovation brought in to the company, gave it the courage to venture into the fields such as building prototype or in education. Though the innovation quotient of the company is high, yet, the major drawback lies in the use of the plastic. The products using plastic are being causing detrimental effects on the environment, thus reducing the sustainability. In order to incorporate innovation, it is essential to break the conventional rules like the Lego Company.However many companies are attempting to play safe and reduce various risks and chances of failures while pursuing innovation. Various companies have been incorporating innovation, without challenging the conventional rules. However most of them are afraid of trying out the unconventional ways of work. These fears in other companies give Lego, a major competitive advantage. Innovation to be incorporated in a company is a major challenge. The expertises among the employees need to match the innovation quotient to implement innovative ideas successfully. However, most of the companies ensure that they incorporate innovation, maintaining the conventional rules. This is mitigate the chances of failures due to innovation. While the companies incorporate innovation, it is important that the employees and human resource are equipped with skills such as problem solving, creative thinking, imagination and diligence, to work successfully in a complete the new process. The government of UAE is proactive in incorporating Innovation and Technology in the country. The Government officials have made it essential that all Emirates contribute to innovation, helping in the growth of the country. Thus, with such attempts, the goal of UAE to establish itself as one of the most innovative countries in the world would be fulfilled. With this goal the government initiated the building human capital. This is because, the government considers human resource as one of the most essential resources.Innovation in UAE is multidimensional. The various sectors that are encompassed such as Technology, Health Care, Space science, Education, transportation as well as renewable energy have been taking place. With this simultaneous attempt, to reach the goal of the most innovative country in the world will be accelerated.I feel many countries have been struggling in the major sectors such as education, healthcare, and transportation. With the initiative taken by government, these sectors of UAE will receive a boost. The encouragement of the government and the competition on innovation is also a good attempt in order to encourage innovation in every sector of life. This encouragement has led to the rise of various innovative leader organizations.These companies are ready to break the conventional rules, since the UAE government encourages them.One of the prominent examples of this encouragement is Dubai Science Park. More than 350 local and international companies are incubated in this park, who are ready to offer innovative processes and solutions to the world.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Drones Kill Innocent Civilians

One of the most debated arguments against the US led war against terrorism is the use of unmanned drones for carrying out attacks against terrorists and militants in countries like Yemen, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: Drones Kill Innocent Civilians specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The common belief is that these attacks must be stopped at once as the severity of collateral damages is beyond acceptable level and these attacks are in clear violation of the international laws and infringement of the sovereignty of other countries. The US led war against axes of evil or in other words against those regimes and countries, which according to the US, are harboring Al-Qaeda and other forms of terrorist networks has continued over the last 11 years. The US forces in their pursuit against the claimed terrorists and militant groups use unmanned drone to launch their att acks. The US government claims drones to be effective way of carrying out operations against such groups. Despite of the criticism and questions raised both on the local and international forums against the validity of the use of drones to perform attacks on other countries’ soil, the US has continued its drone adventurism and the US Congress continues to support these actions. The use of drones is argued on two basic fronts – one is related to the violation of human rights and second is related to the violation of international laws. Drones are not without civilian casualties and many have been injured severely for life. Their use is in no way supportive of the cause of fight against terrorism; instead it is giving birth to a new wave of terrorist and militants who view these attacks to be against their people and religious ideologies. The Obama administration, which is in the office for the second time, has failed to pull out the US troops from Iraq and Afghanistan a nd at the same time, it has shown reluctance to put a stop to drone attacks despite of the repeated protest by the governments of respective targeted countries. The legality of these drone attacks is quite weak and without doubt these some of these drone attacks can be considered as war crimes.Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The United Nations (UN) has finally decided to set up investigation units to determine the legality of drone attacks by the US . But, it is also argued that such step by the UN is taken at the time when drones have already taken thousands of innocent lives. The use of drones is in clear violation of basic human rights and they are threat to the humanity. It is clear that till now there is little precedent for the use of drones by the US in so called counter terrorism attacks and till the time the UN is able to establish some standards for their use, the sovereignty of other countries remains conditional. To conclude, it will not be wrong to say that if these drones continue then there will definitely be other countries which would like to get hands on this technology and use it against others. Without any consensus on the legality of drones and monitoring of their targets it is impossible to argue in support of the standing of the international sovereign and humanity laws, which presently appear to be of no value to the US and its allies. Works Cited Bowcott, Owen. UN to investigate civilian deaths from US drone strikes. 2012. Web Huff Post. Pakistan: Drone Strikes Are Violations Of Sovereignty. 2012. Web. Pearson, Dan and Kathy Kelly. The Rotten Fruits of War: U.S. Drone Attacks over Pakistan. 2009. Web. RT.com. US drone strikes ‘could be war crimes’ and set risky precedent – UN. 2012. Web.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: Drones Kill Innocent Civilians speci fically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The New York Times. Predator Drones and Unmmaner Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). 2012. Web. This essay on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: Drones Kill Innocent Civilians was written and submitted by user Gloria F. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The chemical history of the candle essays

The chemical history of the candle essays After reading this novel I found out that Michael Faraday conducted many experiments that I read in my eighth grade science books. Faraday pioneered many scientific facts that are known and still used today. Thanks to Faraday many scientist can do more advanced experiments due to the fact that he paved the way for them. Michael Faraday (1791-1867) is still until this day considered probably the greatest experimental scientist of all time. He took huge risk in his experiments and still had enough faith in his work to continue. One of the many conclusions that are stated in The Chemical History of a Candle is that in order for or a flame to continue burning or combustion air is necessary. Faraday found this out when he put a burning candle inside a jar and noticed that the flame began to dim and finally died out because all of the air had been consumed, and the combustion couldnt continue without the lack of air. Faraday also found out that combustion creates carbon monoxide after it burns off of oxygen. Michael Faraday was also the first scientist to discover that water can be turned into vapor. To find this out he filled an empty flask with water and heated the vessel. After a few minutes of observation he noticed that steam started to exit the flask. Then he poured cold water on the flask and it collapsed and the steam turned back into water. This very experiment is still carried out today on various science fair projects. The flask after being heated is very delicate and therefore collapses easily when the cold water is applied. These are two of the many experiments that Faraday preformed that helped him become extremely famous. These experiments may not seem that fascinating now, but being that he preformed these two-hundred years ago when there werent many guarantees that a fatal chemical reaction wouldnt take place, these were extremely risky risk. I personally think that if I was in Mic...

What is communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

What is communication - Essay Example ation on the other hand does not incorporate the use of symbols in the communication but it considers all the verbal exchange between two or moirà © parties as communication. The oxford dictionary traces the origin of the word ‘communication’ to the Latin word communis meaning â€Å"common† and Reuben and Stewart believe that the first form of communication originated in the Greek empire especially by the early philosophers like Aristotle and Socrates who developed different explanations concerning communication. These two explanations of communication resemble the Schramm’s model of communication in that they all realize the importance of understanding between the sender of the information and the receiver. In Schramm’s model he calls it the ‘commonness’ between a source and the receiver. All the parties in the communication channel must understand one another and this can only be measured through a feedback from the receiver (Ruben & Lea 20). The transactional model of communication is a preferred model because the communicators can act simultaneously by sending and receiving messages and that the communication process in this case is dynamic and it changes over time. In this model the people whom you are communicating with keep on changing as well as the environment in which the communication is taking place. This model enables the parties involved to gain understanding of the information being communicated because the two parties are interdependent thus the source cannot relay information without the receiver and vice versa. The several factors that affect the reaction of both the sender and the receiver are factors like their cultural beliefs, self esteem and their own backgrounds (wood, 6). My own model of communication would be a linear model that will enable the receiver to give feedback of the received information. This model will be effective than any other in the textbook since the linearity of this model will enable the receiver to listen

Journalism - The Culture and Civiliztion tradition and the Frankfurt Essay

Journalism - The Culture and Civiliztion tradition and the Frankfurt School agree that mass culture is bad for us but for different reasons. Discuss - Essay Example Both the Frankfurt School and the Culture and Civilization tradition put forward the same point that mass culture is not good for us but they presented different reasons to support their views. The Frankfurt school is not supportive of mass culture because it puts forward the opinion that mass culture gives way to capitalism. According to this thought mass culture only puts forward the opinion and the culture of the people who are politically dominant and imposes this upon the people who are less powerful and the minorities. It explains that mass culture is the culture that is the ways and the methods adopted by the people who are politically powerful or financially stronger. These ways are then enforced upon the working class that is the people who are weak so that the power of the already powerful remains intact (Nealon & IRR 2002). The Frankfurt school claims that mass culture depoliticizes the lower class. The Frankfurt school suggests that with new technologies men have been replaced with machinery and there is more leisure time and hence more exposure so there is greater spread of mass culture and hence there is greater oppression and suppression of the working class . according to this thought mass culture destroys individuality and diminishes the creativity and thoughts of an individual by enforcing upon everyone the thoughts of the popular masses (Storey 1998,2001). Adorno who is a prominent thinker of the Frankfurt school writes in his book Dialectic of Enlightment: â€Å"The purity of bourgeois art, which hypostatized itself as a world of freedom in contrast to what was happening in the material world, was from the beginning bought with the exclusion of the lower classes - with whose cause, the real universality, art keeps faith precisely by its freedom from the ends of false universality† (Adorno, Horkheimer & Cumming 1979, p 120-167). Although the culture and civilization tradition is also against mass culture but it puts forward different

Accounting 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Accounting 2 - Essay Example In the end we have tried to comment on the possible reasons behind the changes in these ratios. We have also compared these ratios with past years ratios to find out whether or not the company is on the right path. Based on these ratios we have tried to suggest what the company could do to improve its condition. Some of these ratios are Activity Ratios, Profitability Ratios and solvency ratios. These ratios represent a true picture of the company which solitary figures could not exhibit. In the end we have conclude our report with appendices and various interesting findings about the companies under analysis. Berklee Limited is one of the premier companies operating in Australia. The company was formed by Mr. Adrian Van Berkel in 1963. The company was an immediate success and it was converted into a limited company by 1966. Later, the company was converted into a Public Limited company in 1989 and provided secure investment opportunities to thousands of Australians. Since then, this group has never looked backed and is growing in strength every day. The Principal activities of this group include manufacturing of automotive mufflers and various kinds of exhausts. The company manufactures its products in a fully-automated plant located near Victoria. From this plant, the products are dispatched to the distributors upon completion. Berklee has a unique selling point as its products are sold throughout Australia. This is made possible by the use of its strong distribution network, which has an outreach in every singly city of Australia. 2001 – Present: Mr. Edward Van Berkel, with his dynamic leadership and far-sighted vision, diversified the operation of the company to tube-bending and other automotive products. Since his take over as the managing director, the company has also been managed to achieve ISO Quality Standards and other certificates. The

Planning principles involved in developing a marketing strategy

Planning principles involved in developing a marketing strategy Yum! Brands Introduction Yum! Brands, Inc., based in Louisville, Ky., is the worlds largest restaurant company in terms of system restaurants with more than 37,000 restaurants in over 110 countries and territories and more than 1 million associates. Yum! is ranked #239 on the Fortune 500 List, with nearly $11 billion in revenue in 2009. Four of our restaurant brands KFC, Pizza Hut, Taco Bell and Long John Silvers are the global leaders of the chicken, pizza, and Mexican style food and quick-service seafood categories. The Yum! system including 3 operating segments which are: U.S. market, Yum! Restaurants International, and China Division. In 2009, the Yum! expanded more than 4 new restaurants each day of the year outside of US, making it a leader in international retail development. Results for 2009 once again affirmed Yum! consistent record of success with 13% Earnings Per Share (EPS) growth, which marks the eighth straight year we delivered at least 13% growth and exceeded our 10% EPS growth target. Within 2009, the company opened more than 1,400 new restaurants outside the U.S. Moreover, Yum! brand maintained their Return on Investment Capital (ROIC) of 20% and continued to be an industry leader. YUM! Products KFC KFC is the leader in the chicken segment in the Singapore Quick Service Restaurant (QSR) industry. This is possible because rooted to its cores are simple but real values that allow KFC to offer only the best its customers. Captivating aroma that triggers your senses. A satisfying feast of hearty, mouth watering food specially prepared with the Colonels secret recipe. Generous portions of fresh, succulent side dishes. Salads to balance your diet. At KFC, the restaurant offer high quality and great tasting food in a popular array of complete meals such as Daily Savers Meals, WOW! Meal s and Family Feast, that enable the whole family to share a fun and satisfying experience with all affordability and convenience of Quick Service Restaurant. Pizza Hut Pizza hut operates in 84 countries and territories throughout the world under the name Pizza Hut and features a variety of pizza with different topping as well as pasta, salads, sandwiches and other food items and beverages. The distinctive decor features a bright red roof. Pizza Hut has been named the number one national pizza chain in America according to Restaurant Institution 2001 Choice in Chains survey. Pizza Hut is the recognized leader of $ 25 billion pizza category and has been since 1987. Building the leading pizza company has required innovation, a commitment to quality, and a dedication to service and value. But perhaps as much as anything, it has taken the qualities of entrepreneurship, growth and leadership, which have characterized its business through more than four decades of success. Taco Bell Taco Bell is an American restaurant chain based in Irvine, California. It specializes in Mexican-style food and quick service. Taco Bell serves tacos, burritos, quesadillas, nachos, other specialty items and a variety of Value Menu item. Recently, Taco Bell serves more than 2 billion consumers each year in more than 5,800 restaurants in the U.S., of which more than 80% are owned and operated by independent franchisees. Long John Silvers Long John Silvers, Inc. is a United States-base fast-food restaurant that specializes in seafood. The name and concept were by Robert Louis Stevensons book Treasure Island. Its headquarters are in Louisville, Kentucky. A W Restaurant A W Restaurants, Inc. is a chain of fast-food restaurants, distinguished by its draft root beer and root beer floats. AW was arguably the first successful food franchise company, starting franchise in 1921. Today it has franchise locations throughout the world, serving a typical fast food menu of hamburgers and fries, as well as hot dogs. A number of its outlets are drive-in restaurants with carhops. The company name was taken from the last name initials of partners Roy Allen and Frank Wright. The chain is currently owned by Yum! Brands. Yum! Vision Strategy Yum! brands are committed to continuing the success realized during our first ten years. Our success has only just begun as we look forward to the future, one which promises a long runway for growth, especially on an international level. Yum! is building a vibrant global business by focusing on four key growth strategies. Build leading brands across china in every significant category Our experienced and tremendous local team led by our Vice Chairman of Yum! Brands and President of China, Sam Su, grew our profits a whopping 25% in 2009 on top of 28% in 2008. You dont need to be a math major (and Im not!) to easily calculate thats over 50% growth in two years. The good news is that we achieved these results even though our same store sales were slightly negative as the consumer generally lagged Chinas relatively strong economic growth. We added a record 509 new units in Mainland China and now have nearly 3,500 restaurants that generated near record restaurant margins of 20% in 2009. In spite of this robust profit growth, some investors have asked: Is Yum!s recent relatively weak same store sales performance in Mainland China an early indicator that something is wrong with the business or Yum! is growing too fast? We believe the answer is definitively NO! Drive aggressive international expansion and build strong brands everywhere. Yum! Restaurants International, which operates in over 110 countries and territories outside the US and China, continues to deliver on this strategy as it delivered 5% system sales and profit growth both excluding foreign currency translation which negatively impacted our reported profits by 11 percentage points in 2009. We treasure this divisions high return franchising model with over 90% of our new restaurants built by franchisees that generate over $650 million in franchise fees, requiring minimal capital on our part. Driven by this franchisee development machine, we opened nearly 900 new restaurants in over 75 countries. Thats the tenth straight year we have opened more than 700 new units and our pipeline remains strong as we go into 2010. Dramatically Improve U.S. Brand Positions, Consistency and Returns. Theres no question 2009 was a very disappointing year for our US business. Overall our same store sales declined 5% as we grew profits only 1%, led primarily by a restructuring initiative we took the prior year which yielded a $65 million decrease in our general and administrative expenses. Nevertheless, we remain confident were taking the right steps to deliver stronger brand positioning, higher returns and consistent growth performance to tap the inherent sales opportunity and ultimate value in our 18,000 restaurants. And the good news is we have the marketing strength to do so with category leading brands along with outstanding unit economics on a stand-alone basis. We also have a system that generates a steady earnings stream of over $700 million in franchise and licensing fees. As we go forward, our strategy is to better leverage our large US restaurant asset base and all our restaurants around the world with what we have coined incremental sales layers in these 5 areas: 1) More options for consumers across our menu. 2) More contemporary beverage options unique desserts. 3) Expanded day parts, especially breakfast. 4) Broader protein offerings. 5) Contemporary assets. Drive Industry-leading Long-term Shareholder and Franchisee Value Extremely proud and continue to be a leader among consumer companies with return on invested capital at 20%. The companies defined a global cash machine, with each of our divisions generating free cash flow or effectively funding their own capital investments. As this capital is deployed to high growth opportunities. Planning principles Marketing planning is the process that leads to the creation of a marketing plan. The marketing plan is a systematic design for achieving the objectives of creating value for customers and competitive advantage, growth, and profitability for the organization. Steps of the planning principle can be described as following: Strategy Before Tactics Develop the strategic marketing plan first. This entails emphasis on scanning the external environment, identifying early forces emanating from it, and developing appropriate strategic responses. Involve all levels of management in the process. A strategic plan covers a period of three to five years. Only when this plan has been developed and agreed upon is a one-year operational marketing plan developed. Never write the one-plan first and extrapolate it. Situate Marketing Within Operations For the purpose of marketing planning, put marketing a close as possible to the customer. When practical, have both marketing and sales report to the same person, who is not the chief executive officer. Shared Values About Marketing Marketing is a management process whereby the resources of the entire organization are use to satisfy the needs of selected customer groups to achieve the objectives of both parties. Marketing is an attitude of mind rather than a series of functional activities. Structure Around Markets Organize company activities around customer group if possible rather than around functional activities, and conduct marketing planning done in these strategic business units. Without excellent marketing planning in strategic business units, corporate marketing planning is of limited value. Scan The Environment Thoroughly The following are requirements for an effective marketing audit: Checklists of questions customized according to level in the organization are prepared. The checklists form the basis of the organizations Marketing Information System (MIS). The marketing audit is required activity. Managers a not allowed to hide behind vague term, such as poor economic conditions. Managers are encouraged to incorporate the tools of marketing in their audits, such as product life cycles and portfolios. Summarize Information In SWOT Analyses Information is the foundation on which a marketing plan is built. From information (internal and external) comes intelligence. A SWOT analysis does the following: Focuses on each specific segment of crucial importance to the organizations future Is a summary emanating from the marketing audit. Is brief, interesting, and concise. Focuses on key factors only. Lists key external opportunities and threats only. Identifies the real issues, is not a list of unrelated points. Is clear enough for reader to grasp instantly the main thrust of the business, even to the point of being able to write marketing objectives. Answers the implied question which mean that..? to get the real implications. Does not leave out important fact, questions, and issues. Skills and Knowledge Ensure that all those responsible for marketing have necessary marketing knowledge and skills for the job. In particular, ensure that they understand and know how to sue the tools of marketing, such as the following: Information and scanning. Positioning. Market segmentation. Targeting. Product life cycle analysis. Portfolio management. Gap analysis. Boston Consulting Group matrix. Directional policy matrix. Four Ps of management-product, price, place, promotion. Marketing personnel also need communication and interpersonal skills. Systematize The Process It is essential to have a set of written procedures and a well-argues common format for marketing planning. The purposes of such a system are as follows: To ensure that all key issues are systematically considered To pull together the essential elements of the strategic plan in a consistent manner In a multi business enterprise, to help corporate management to compare diverse businesses and to understand the overall condition of and prospects for the organization. Sequence Objectives Ensure that all objectives are prioritized according to their impact on the organization and their urgency and that resource are allocated accordingly Style and Culture Marketing planning is not effective without the active support and participation of top management. But even with this support, the type of marketing planning has to be appropriate for phase of the organizational lifeline. This phase is measured before an attempt is made to introduce marketing planning. Accurately describe and critically evaluate a range of tools and techniques use to produce a strategic marketing plan Marketing Audit Marketing audit can be easily identified as an essential part of an efficient marketing planning process. It is a very important process that is not only carried out at the begging but also at regular intervals during the actual marketing planning process. A marketing audit has a lot of influence upon the marketing planning process through the various external and internal factors. There are a number of tools and techniques that are used during a marketing audit. Some of the tools are: SWOT Analysis: One of the most important tools of marketing audit is the SWOT or Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats analysis. This tool is of a lot of help to the marketers and is used at the beginning of the marketing audit process. The SWOT analysis comes along with a lot of advantages but it has some drawbacks as well. Some of the drawbacks of SWOT analysis are that it is very subjective and cannot be relied upon too much. Thus, it has always been recommended that the SWOT analysis be used as a guide in the marketing planning process and not as a prescription to the various problems. PEST Analysis: This is the analysis of the various factors that have an effect upon the marketing process. The organization undergoing a marketing analysis should be taking into consideration all the environmental factors and give it a thorough analysis. These environmental factors may be internal or external. The internal factors compromise of the staff and queries related to them. The external would be the external customers and the various distributors connected to the concern and the political and economic factors are also taken into consideration. Porter Five Force Analysis: This is an analysis that enables the marketer to have a clear picture of the competition outside in the market. This type of analysis has some similarities with the PEST analysis and is different in the sense that it focuses its attention upon a single business or a single concern. In this analysis the marketer basically goes through five basic areas of concern. These areas can be classified as the areas of treat of entry, the suppliers power the power of the buyers and also the threats revealed by the competitors and the rivals. Some of the advantages associated with this analysis are that it leads to economies of large scale with the help of mass purchase and sales. The various distribution channels can also be easily accessed and also finds out if the cost of switching over to some other supplier is low or not. Yum! Brands, Inc. SWOT Analysis The Yum! Brands, Inc. SWOT Analysis examines the companys key business structure and operations, history and products, and provides summary analysis of its key revenue lines and strategy. Strengths The Companys continuous expansion into Asia and other regions. Well-developed restaurant brands and exceptionally efficient and ever-improving restaurant operations. The idea of multi-branding which causes one establishment to appeal to varying customers. Strong advertising campaigns. Constant updating of menus and specials to appeal to current trends and fads. Weaknesses Some brands (concepts) may weigh down profits of top performing ones. Sensitivity to market fluctuations. Opportunities International expansion and growth. In domestic markets, turning one-brand units into multi-brand units to appeal to more customers, which will cut into competitors revenues. Improvement of operations. Threats The highly competitive nature of the restaurant industry. Entry of competitors into foreign markets first. Menu appeal. Yum! Brands (Yum Brands) operates franchises and licenses a chain of restaurant brands including Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC), Pizza Hut, Taco Bell, Long John Silvers (LJS) and All America Food (AW). The company operates in over 110 countries around the globe. It is headquartered in Louisville, Kentucky and employs about 336,000 people. The company recorded revenues of $11,279 million during fiscal year ending December 2008 (FY2008), an increase of 8.3% over FY2007. The operating profit of the company was $1,506 million during FY2008, an increase of 11% over FY2007. The net profit was $964 million in FY2008, an increase of 6.1% over FY2007. Task 2 Examine A Range of Marketing Strategy Options Explain with clarity a range of marketing strategy options available and evaluate their benefits and limitations, using supporting examples. 4.1. The Porter Generic Strategy Model If the primary determinant of a firms profitability is the attractiveness of the industry in which it operates, an important secondary determinant is its position within that industry. Even though an industry may have below-average profitability, a firm that is optimally positioned can generate superior returns. A firm positions itself by leveraging its strengths. Michael Porter has argued that a firms strengths ultimately fall into one of two headings: cost advantage and differentiation. By applying these strengths in either a broad or narrow scope, three generic strategies result: cost leadership, differentiation, and focus. These strategies are applied at the business unit level. They are called generic strategies because they are not firm or industry dependent. The following table illustrates Porters generic strategies: Target Scope Advantage Low Cost Product Uniqueness Broad (Industry Wide) Cost Leadership Strategy Differentiation Strategy Narrow (Market Segment) Focus Strategy (low cost) Focus Strategy (differentiation) Cost Leadership Strategy This generic strategy calls for being the low cost producer in an industry for a given level of quality. The firm sells its products either at average industry prices to earn a profit higher than that of rivals, or below the average industry prices to gain market share. In the event of a price war, the firm can maintain some profitability while the competition suffers losses. Even without a price war, as the industry matures and prices decline, the firms that can produce more cheaply will remain profitable for a longer period of time. The cost leadership strategy usually targets a broad market. Some of the ways that firms acquire cost advantages are by improving process efficiencies, gaining unique access to a large source of lower cost materials, making optimal outsourcing and vertical integration decisions, or avoiding some costs altogether. If competing firms are unable to lower their costs by a similar amount, the firm may be able to sustain a competitive advantage based on cost leadership. Firms that succeed in cost leadership often have the following internal strengths: Access to the capital required making a significant investment in production assets; this investment represents a barrier to entry that many firms may not overcome. Skill in designing products for efficient manufacturing, for example, having a small component count to shorten the assembly process. High level of expertise in manufacturing process engineering. Efficient distribution channels. Each generic strategy has its risks, including the low-cost strategy. For example, other firms may be able to lower their costs as well. As technology improves, the competition may be able to leapfrog the production capabilities, thus eliminating the competitive advantage. Additionally, several firms following a focus strategy and targeting various narrow markets may be able to achieve an even lower cost within their segments and as a group gain significant market share. Differentiation Strategy A differentiation strategy calls for the development of a product or service that offers unique attributes that are valued by customers and that customers perceive to be better than or different from the products of the competition. The value added by the uniqueness of the product may allow the firm to charge a premium price for it. The firm hopes that the higher price will more than cover the extra costs incurred in offering the unique product. Because of the products unique attributes, if suppliers increase their prices the firm may be able to pass along the costs to its customers who cannot find substitute products easily. Firms that succeed in a differentiation strategy often have the following internal strengths: Access to leading scientific research. Highly skilled and creative product development team. Strong sales team with the ability to successfully communicate the perceived strengths of the product. Corporate reputation for quality and innovation. The risks associated with a differentiation strategy include imitation by competitors and changes in customer tastes. Additionally, various firms pursuing focus strategies may be able to achieve even greater differentiation in their market segments. Focus Strategy The focus strategy concentrates on a narrow segment and within that segment attempts to achieve either a cost advantage or differentiation. The premise is that the needs of the group can be better serviced by focusing entirely on it. A firm using a focus strategy often enjoys a high degree of customer loyalty, and this entrenched loyalty discourages other firms from competing directly. Because of their narrow market focus, firms pursuing a focus strategy have lower volumes and therefore less bargaining power with their suppliers. However, firms pursuing a differentiation-focused strategy may be able to pass higher costs on to customers since close substitute products do not exist. Firms that succeed in a focus strategy are able to tailor a broad range of product development strengths to a relatively narrow market segment that they know very well. Some risks of focus strategies include imitation and changes in the target segments. Furthermore, it may be fairly easy for a broad-market cost leader to adapt its product in order to compete directly. Finally, other focusers may be able to carve out sub-segments that they can serve even better. A Combination of Generic Strategies Stuck in the Middle? These generic strategies are not necessarily compatible with one another. If a firm attempts to achieve an advantage on all fronts, in this attempt it may achieve no advantage at all. For example, if a firm differentiates itself by supplying very high quality products, it risks undermining that quality if it seeks to become a cost leader. Even if the quality did not suffer, the firm would risk projecting a confusing image. For this reason, Michael Porter argued that to be successful over the long-term, a firm must select only one of these three generic strategies. Otherwise, with more than one single generic strategy the firm will be stuck in the middle and will not achieve a competitive advantage. Porter argued that firms that are able to succeed at multiple strategies often do so by creating separate business units for each strategy. By separating the strategies into different units having different policies and even different cultures, a corporation is less likely to become stuck in the middle. However, there exists a viewpoint that a single generic strategy is not always best because within the same product customers often seek multi-dimensional satisfactions such as a combination of quality, style, convenience, and price. There have been cases in which high quality producers faithfully followed a single strategy and then suffered greatly when another firm entered the market with a lower-quality product that better met the overall needs of the customers. Generic Strategies and Industry Forces These generic strategies each have attributes that can serve to defend against competitive forces. The following table compares some characteristics of the generic strategies in the context of the Porters five forces. Generic Strategies and Industry Forces Industry Force Generic Strategies Cost Leadership Differentiation Focus Entry Barriers Ability to cut price in retaliation deters potential entrants. Customer loyalty can discourage potential entrants. Focusing develops core competencies that can act as an entry barrier. Buyer Power Ability to offer lower price to powerful buyers. Large buyers have less power to negotiate because of few close alternatives. Large buyers have less power to negotiate because of few alternatives. Supplier Power Better insulated from powerful suppliers. Better able to pass on supplier price increases to customers. Suppliers have power because of low volumes, but a differentiation-focused firm is better able to pass on supplier price increases. Threat of Substitutes Can use low price to defend against substitutes. Customers become attached to differentiating attributes, reducing threat of substitutes. Specialized products core competency protect against substitutes. Rivalry Better able to compete on price. Brand loyalty to keep customers from rivals. Rivals cannot meet differentiation-focused customer needs. Sources: Task 3 Explore the implications of changes in the marketing environment of organizations Assess the current changes in the marketing environment for an organization Changing Marketing Environment Professional marketing has become more important as advanced countries have shifted from a supply to a demand environment. For most of history the world has been characterised by insufficient supply: not enough food and material goods to meet human requirements. The key priority in the past has been improving production, purchasing and finance of trade. Today this has all changed. Now, the advanced countries are characterised by excessive supply. The central problem is attracting demand, not meeting it. Faced with an array of alternatives, the customer is spoiled for choice. The priority in management is how to identify and develop goods and services that are more attractive to customers than those of competitors. As the market environment changes, managers have to adapt their strategies and organization. Unless these changes are made obsolete by changes in customer wants, new technologies and new competitors that have adapted more effectively. Fashionisation: In the past fashion was identified with womens clothing. But today more and more markets watches, motorcycles, beer, cars, pharmaceuticals, cinema music, electronics goods, even management courses are characterised by annual model changes, rapid obsolescence and an unpredictable and fickle demand. Companies that cannot handle novelty, rapid model replacement, fashion and style see their market shares slipping and their profit margins. Without novelty and continual feature enhancement, the company will see its prices and market share relentlessly chiselled away. The original iPod was launched in 2001 and updated twice within the next year. By mid -2005 the range had grown to four basic models all targeted at different uses and users and positioned as the music fashion accessory. Micro-markets: The old textbooks to postulate that a company could between a differentiated and an undifferentiated strategy. An undifferentiated strategy is where a company makes a single product for the whole market. The usual example was Coca-Cola, which, it was said, offered one product, in one bottle size, at one price and with one advertising message to all customers, everywhere in the world. No longer. Even Coca-Cola is today offered in an increasing and bewildering variety of forms-new Coke, classic and cherry, with or without caffeine, diet Coke, in cans or in numerous bottle sizes, all advertised in various style and formats. Todays customers expect the manufacture to customise the product and service to their specific needs. Technology has made this variety expansion economically viable for companies. New flexible systems, such as computer-aided design and manufacturing and customised software, permit ever-finer market segmentation and product range expansion. Finally, the new communications technology makes it possible to deliver individual messages. Rising expectation: Changing environment Marketing strategy Organization for marketing Fashionisation Speed Breaking Hierarchies Micro-Markets Customisation Small Business Units Rising Expectations Quality Selt-Managing Teams Technology Information Networks Re-Engineering Competition Core Competences Strategic Alliances Globalisation Think Global Transnational Organisation Service Software Augmentation Learning Organisation Commoditisation Partnerships Account Management Erosion Of Brands Innovation Expeditionary Marketing New Constraints Stakeholders Role of the Broad The changing marketing environment and its implication 3.2: Analyse how an organization could respond to the changes Changing Organization for Marketing: The rapidly changing business environment makes existing products and marketing strategic obsolete. Companies have to become faster, more flexible, more innovative and capable of forging new partnerships with customer and suppliers. To put in place such strategies, however, requires sweeping organizational changes. Yesterdays giant organizations such as Marks Spencer, General Motors, ICI, Midland Bank, Sears an

Childhood Mortality in Nineteenth-Century England :: European Europe History

Childhood Mortality in Nineteenth-Century England The issue of childhood mortality is written into the works of Gaskell and Dickens with alarming regularity. In Mary Barton, Alice tells Mary and Margaret that before Will was orphaned, his family had buried his six siblings. There is also the death of the Wilson twins, as well as Tom Barton's early death --an event which inspires his father John to fight for labor rights because he's certain his son would have survived if he'd had better food. In Oliver Twist, Dick's early death is typical of workhouse children who never recover from years of chronic malnutrition. And in Dombey and Son, Paul demonstrates that wealth does not guarantee longevity, as we watch him steadily weakened by some mysterious illness. Evidence is everywhere that Gaskell, Dickens, and many of their contemporaries, used fiction to chronicle a sad fact of l9th century life: Many children didn't live to become adults. At the Newell Historical Burial ground in Attleboro, the stone marking the graves of the Stanley family indicates that three children were either stillborn or died before their first birthdays. If there were any other children who survived childhood, they were probably daughters who were buried in their husbands' family plots. A typical grave from the mid-19th century is a husband's stone flanked by two or even three wives each but the last having died in her 20s or 30s. Certainly many of these women died in childbirth, because their death dates match the birth dates on the children's stones. Several children might be named after the father. In one family plot with eight children, three were named John because only the third one survived the first year. ApE time when the death of a toddler was as normal as this practice was quite common in both America and England. While all of Dombey's money couldn't save his son from dying, little Paul's diet, lifestyle, and medical attention gave him every advantage available. The relationship between poverty and childhood mortality is unmistakable. In Boston's Irish Catholic slums, Lemuel Shattuck found that between 1841 and 1845, 61% of the population died before the age of five. (Woodham-Smith, p. 252) Poor English children didn't fare any particularly in the manufacturing towns of London, Sheffield, Leocester, Manchester, and Liverpool. Statistics from the Sheffield General Infirmary' between 1837 and 1842 reveal that of 11,944 deaths, half were children under age five:

Cusick and Her Lesbian Relationship with Music Essay

In the essay â€Å"On a Lesbian Relationship with Music: A Serious Effort Not to Think Straight† by Suzanne G. Cusick, she brings up an interesting topic about the connection between her being a lesbian and her being a musician, a musicologist, if there exists any. I’m especially interested in the â€Å"power system† and the link between musicality and lesbianism she mentions in this article. Here, I’ll try to analysis them in detail and relate them with other issues in music and sexuality, exploring them in a more general picture. Cusick redefines the concept of sexuality in her essay, as the way of â€Å"expressing and/or enacting relationships of intimacy through physical pleasure shared, accepted, or given.† According to her, this process of expressing and enacting can also be found in our musical activities, where the circulation of physical pleasure can be experienced as well. Thus, she says that our musicalities and our sexualities are â€Å"psychically next-door neighbors.† (70) I need to claim that this idea of her amazes me. From my previous musical experience, I’m pretty sure that music is a subject highly intimate for me. For instance, I usually have reluctance when I’m asked to sing or perform a song written by myself, even if I think it is a brilliant one. And this won’t happen if the song is someone else’s. In my opinion, music, especially my own music which I’m personally attached to, is an expression of my true self, and that identity and personal characteristics contained in it makes it so special that I won’t be willing to share it with others, unless it’s someone really close to me. Another fact that I think will support Cusick’s idea is that different people always have different opinions towards the same piece of music. No matter how the composer perceives it, the listener usually has the tendency to relate it to his/her own personal experiences, which differ from person to person. It is reasonable to think that music is a symbol of someone’s personalities and characteristics, because of the intimacy the music creates. Therefore, I believe that there exists a connection between the musicality and the sexuality of a certain person, since both of them are revelations of his/her true identity, and we can examine our own behaviors on both of them. In other words, these two factors are connected because of the person who they belong to, and they are contained in the system of his/her perspectives. Cusick also explains in her article what does it mean to be a â€Å"lesbian† and how to define sexuality, which are essential questions if we want to relate it to music. From her point of view, the essence of one’s sexuality and the element of all relationships is the power system. An example that can explain this is what musicologists say about the masculinity in Beethoven. In Susan McClary’s opinion, there exist musical constructions of gender and sexuality. She regards the field of music and musicology as male-dominated, since the masculine norm and the distinction between genders are deeply rooted in music, such as masculine and feminine cadences, rhythms, gendered major and minor triads, etc. (7) She also analyzes Beethoven’s music, which to her contains â€Å"pounding†, â€Å"thrusting† gestures that represent masculinity. (75) On the contrary, in Sanna Pederson’s article â€Å"Beethoven and Masculinity,† she redefines the concept of masculinity and the link between it with Beethoven. She states that we can find an alternative approach, arguing that we regard Beethoven as symbol of masculinity because of the overwhelming idea that viewing woman as â€Å"as unchanging, eternal essence, as the opposite of the dynamically striving and achieving man.† (326) Matthew Head also approaches this from another perspective by examining the heroic in Beethoven’s works, finding many cross-dressed he roines. (132) It’s notable that although there is importance put on female characters, women usually need to conceal their sexuality and transgress the gendered norms in order to serve as the epitomes in the aesthetic sphere. This shows that, no matter what kind of connection there exists between Beethoven and masculinity, there does exist a power system that emphasis on the inequality between men and women, where women as less – worth less, power less – man, in both our society and in music. Whichever argument we believe, we should admit the extensive presence of the power system in our society, and in practice, it can be found both in music and in many relationships between people, especially heterosexual ones. The most significant point of view of her in this essay, I think, is that she believes being a lesbian is an escape from this power system: As a woman, as a non-dominating and non-power woman who loves another woman in her relationship, the flow of power can exist in both directions, as opposed to a heterosexual relationship where a man typically plays the dominating and powerful part. And Cusick believes that this is the beauty of a lesbian relationship: it’s about â€Å"organizing the force field of power, pleasure, and intimacy that refuses the simple binary opposition male and female†. The lack of opposition creates a world that scrambles the usual components of â€Å"man† and â€Å"woman†, and a world â€Å"free of fixed categories.† (73) This reminds me of the documentary â€Å"Paris is Burning†, which stunned me with its idea of celebrations of a powerful expression of personalities, without any restriction of boundaries. There, what matters is the personal prides, which are fully showed in the â€Å"drag nights† in New York. Cusick further explains the elements in a lesbian relationship as the â€Å"power/pleasure/intimacy† triad. (71) From my understanding, this is indeed an appropriate way to observe a relationship. As I mentioned before, power is an important factor that circulates within the relationship. What’s more, pleasure and intimacy are objectives that we usually want to achieve when we are involved someone we love, and thus they are essential bolsters of a relationship. As Cusick says, this triad can be experienced more freely in lesbian relationships, because without the power flowing only in one direction, the equality and balance between the two lovers can give them more intimacy and pleasure, both physically and psychically, from their relationship. Hence, in Cusick’s article, being a lesbian is not merely a sexual orientation; it is also the way one prefers to behave, to organize the relationship to the world in a â€Å"power/pleasure/intimacy† triad. It’s a way of refusing, breaking, and creating, and to cope with the world in a way that she prefers. And these behaviors can also be detected in a person’s musicality, which is also built in his/he r identity. More interestingly, Cusick talks about the â€Å"lesbian relationship† she has with music. She treats music as a woman, and a woman that can be a lover, and also the beloved – as in a lesbian relationship where the power circulates both ways and cross without boundaries. (78) In the article â€Å"Musicality, Essentialism, and the Closet† written by Philip Brett, he also discusses music be perceived as feminine. Brett says that in history, music has often been considered a dangerous substance, â€Å"an agent of moral ambiguity always in dander of bestowing deviant status upon its practitioners.† (11) By describing music as a woman that â€Å"ravish† our sense or our soul, people from the medieval and early modern times let us see how close music and sexuality can be. This also makes Cusick’s treating music as a female lover more sensible. Another idea of her that interests me is that she thinks her choice of music can reflects her sexuality. She says that her love for hidden relationships and the tension between the ostensible structure, which represents the tension between a social norm and â€Å"a very high degree of eccentricity,† suggests her escape from the power system. Also, she dis-prefers music hat upset this power equilibrium. (77) She explains this by saying that her â€Å"lesbian self† let her prefer certain kinds of music and reject some other kinds. This makes me think about in general, how people’s choices of music reflect their sexuality and identity, and to what degree. I agree that the choices of music can reflect that person’s personality to some extent, but I also believe that the music he/she listens can shape that person into the qualities and personalities that the music wants him/her to have. The same as Cusick’s relationship with her music, there is a counter -influence here as well. Rentfrow and Gosling found in their research that people’s music preferences are related to a wide array of personality dimensions and self-views. If the links between music preferences and personality do exist, we can easily infer that our choices of music reflect our identity, which also links to our sexuality. Besides, we can always see the influences of music on people. It has been shown by Frederick H. Martens that music exerts its collective influence in the course of history. He also says that as an individual influence, music is one of the factors in the life of kings and rulers, which also â€Å"has exerted a more or less direct influence on the destinies of countries and peoples.† We can see clearly from his article that music can significantly affect one’s views and thoughts on this world, therefore it is an important element in directing people’s personality and characteristics. Hence, the relationship between a person and the music he/she listens is a mutual one. People’s preference of music decides the music they choose, and what they choose can reversely change them as well, directing them into the qualities that can be defined through that music. This can also illustrate Cusick’s point that her relationship with music is about the power dynamic that circulates both ways between music and her, and this relationship highly resembles the one between lesbian lovers. Thus, the link between music and sexuality is obvious. Furthermore, I’m wondering about how the connection between identity and sexuality works in other subjects and fields of study. Cusick says in her article that she does not address the texts of music because she thinks that they tend to trick us into staying in a â€Å"power-over paradigm that is mighty close to the regime of compulsory heterosexuality.† Personally, I don’t entirely agree with her on this. In my opinion, other subjects such as literature and art can also illustrate one’s identity, thus they can represent people’s qualities through the â€Å"â€Å"power/pleasure/intimacy† triad as well, and so does texts in music . The reason why Cusick thinks that focusing on texts can deviates us is that her love and professional interests in music leave her only looking at music as an intimate lover. But for people from other fields and domains, their subjects can be treated as lovers and beloved as well. For example, it is reasonable to imagine a poet feels extreme intimacy in his relationship with poems. Cusick mentioned by herself in the notes that she can also find tremendous joy from cooking, and she loves to peel fruits and vegetables without a knife, because she believes it will create wholly pleasurable experiences. (83) I would not say Cusick is also in love with vegetables, but what she says can suggest that pleasure and intimacy do not solely exist between people and music. As Pygmalion can fall in love with the statue he carved, why can’t a songwriter build a romantic tie with the texts of music he wrote? In other words, as long as we have passion, the relationship between people and his/her subject of study can be developed in any area, within which we can find its connection with sexuality. This essay of Cusick is not very long, but the notions it contains, I believe, are really valuable sources of thoughts if we want to explore the relationship between music and sexuality, especially when we want to discover it from a perspective about our own identity and personal characteristics. Cusick has nicely shown that the boundary between music and sex can be a blurred one, where both are means of negotiating power and intimacy through the circulation of pleasure. Here, the most important is the people that involves both with music and with sex, intimately experiencing them and wholly mingling with them. As Cusick says, what really matters is neither music nor sex, but â€Å"the transcendent joy of being alive, not dead, and aware of the existence.† (69) Works Cited: Brett, Philip, Elizabeth Wood, and Gary Thomas. Queering the Pitch : the New Gay and Lesbian Musicology. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2006. McClary, Susan. Reading Music : Selected Essays. Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2007. McClary, Susan. Feminine Endings : Music, Gender, and Sexuality. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. Rentfrow, Peter J, and Samuel D Gosling. â€Å"The do re miÊ ¼s of everyday life: the structure and personality correlates of music preferences.† Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84.6 (2003) : 1236-1256. Frederick H. Martens. The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 11, No. 2 (Apr., 1925), pp. 196-218 Burnham, Scott G, and Michael P Steinberg. Beethoven and His World. Princeton [N.J.]: Princeton University Press, 2000. Head, Matthew. â€Å"Beethoven Heroine: A Female Allegory of Music and Authorship in Egmont.† 19th-Century Music 30 (2006-07), 97-132.

Nigerian English - Culture and Language of Nigeria

Nigerian English - Culture and Language of Nigeria The varieties of the English language that are used in the Federal Republic of Nigeria, the most populous country in Africa. English is the official language of Nigeria, a former British protectorate. English (especially the variety known as Nigerian Pidgin English) functions as a lingua franca in this multilingual country. Examples and Observations: The spectrum of English in Nigeria ranges from Standard English through a more general English whose structures are influenced by the mother tongues, by the Indian English of many traders and teachers, and by WAPE [West African Pidgin English], which is sometimes acquired as a mother tongue in such urban areas as Calabar and Port Harcourt, usually along with one or more local languages. Its many forms reflect both mother tongue and WAPE influence. Although a number of Pidgin dictionaries have been compiled, it has not yet been standardized. Pidgin has been used in prose by many writers, including Chinua Achebe, as a vehicle for poetry by Frank Aig-Imoukhuede, and for drama by Ola Rotimi.(Tom McArthur, The Oxford Guide to World English. Oxford Univ. Press, 2002)[M.A.] Adekunle (1974) attributes all of standard Nigerian Englishs Nigerian usages in lexis and syntax to interference from the mother tongue. It is quite easy to show that while some usages can be so attributed, the vast majo rity, at least in Educated Nigerian English, arise from the normal process of language development involving a narrowing or extension of meaning or the creation of new idioms. Most such usages cut across all first-language backgrounds. For example, when travel is used in the sense to be away, as in My father has traveled ( My father is away), it is not a transfer of a first-language expression into English, but a modification of the verb to travel.   Ã‚  (Ayo Bamgbose, Identifying Nigerian Uses in Nigerian English. English: History, Diversity, and Change, ed. by David Graddol, Dick Leith, and Joan Swann. Routledge, 1996) Nigerian Pidgin English [Pidgin English], it can be argued, has had a much more important function than English in Nigeria, at least in the southern provinces, since about 1860. The number of its speakers, the frequency of its uses and the range of its functions have been expanding ever since its first formation from local jargons of Antera Dukes type when the need for an interethnic lingua franca arose. Increasing social and geographical mobility have continuously added to this expansion. Whether the estimate of 30% pidgin speakers in Nigeria is a realistic figure is impossible to say.(Manfred Gà ¶rlach, Even More Englishes: Studies 1996-1997. John Benjamins, 1998) Lexical Features of Nigerian English [E.O.] Bamiro (1994: 51-64) gives the following examples of words that have developed special meanings in Nigerian English...The presence of Citroà «n and Volkswagen cars has led to the creative and witty coining of the words footroà «n and footwagen. They had to do parts of the journey by footroà «n simply means they had to walk some of the way. Other coinages include ricobay hair (a popular Nigerian hairstyle), white-white (the white shirts worn by schoolchildren), and watchnight, which means something like staying up through the night to celebrate New Years Eve or some other festival.Ellipsis is common so that he is a mental means he is a mental patient. ...Clipping, common also in Australian English, is frequent. Perms in the following example is a short or clipped form of permutations: We would not have wasted our time running after perms.(Andy Kirkpatrick, World Englishes: Implications for International Communication and English Language Teaching. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007 )Nigerian English has a whole host of what we call stereotyped phrases of salutations that would strike most native English speakers as curious at best and incomprehensible at worst. While some of these phrases are creative coinages or semantic extensions based on the socio-cultural uniqueness of Nigerian cultural expressions which the English language hasnt lexicalized, others are the products of an insufficient familiarity with the conventions and idioms of the English language.Say me well to him/her/your family, etc. Nigerians use this ungainly verbalism when they want to send expressions of goodwill to someone through another person. This uniquely Nigerian English expression would be puzzling to native speakers of the English language because it is structurally awkward, grammatically incorrect, and unidiomatic.Whatever it is, the expression has attained idiomatic status in Nigerian English and should probably be patented and exported to other parts of the English-speaking world as Nigerian linguistic invention in English.​  (Farooq A. Kperogi, Nigeria: Top 10 Peculiar Salutations in Local English. AllAfrica, November 11, 2012) Distinctive Uses of Prepositions in Nigerian English Many scholars of Nigerian English have identified the tendency to omit the preposition to in the collocation enable someone/something to do something as one of the key features of our dialect of the English language. Enable and to are indissolubly married in American English and British English; one cannot appear without the other. So where Nigerians would write or say I hereby apply for a loan to enable me buy a car, British or American English speakers would write or say I hereby apply for a loan to enable me TO buy a car.While Nigerians blithely omit prepositions when we use enable, contest, reply, etc., we gladly pluck some from the air and insert them where they are normally not used in native varieties of the English language. An example is the phrase request FOR. In American and British English request is never followed by a preposition. For example, where Nigerians would say I requested FOR a loan from my bank, native speakers of the English language would write I requested a loan from my bank.(Farooq A. Kperog, Nigeria: Prepositional and Collocational Abuse in Nigerian English. Sunday Trust [Nigeria], July 15, 2012)

A Critical Assessment of the Agricultural Subsidies of the United States of America (US) and the European Union (EU)

A Critical Assessment of the Agricultural Subsidies of the United States of America (US) and the European Union (EU) Introduction Subsidies are deployed as a means of boosting production, by giving financial grants from one party to another in order to increase production beyond the market equilibrium. From an economist’s perspective, funding has been adopted in different contexts to give varying implications and significance.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on A Critical Assessment of the Agricultural Subsidies of the United States of America (US) and the European Union (EU) specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines subsidies as â€Å"measures that keep prices for consumers below market levels, or measures that keep prices for producers above market levels† (OECD 2006, p.3). Many economists argue that the term subsidy can be applied to mean all forms of payments made directly by a government to various producers. In light of these explanations, this paper considers subsides as including direct means of regulating the equilibrium between consumption and supply of products and services in the market, among them being cash grants coupled with provisions of interest-free loans from the government. Low-interests loans, tax wavering write-offs of depreciation charged on assets, rent rebates and insurance are also considered among the alternative forms of subsidy. The main purpose of this paper is to conduct a comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between the US and the EU agricultural subsidies. The basis for this research is founded in existing literature that relate to economic theories on taxes and subsidies. In addition, to expand on the discussion involving the similarities and differences in agriculture subsidies within the US and EU, as well as their implications on economy, a literature review of economics of subsidies and taxes will be considered first.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Le t's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The paper further presents the differences between the US and the EU agricultural policies, concerning the legislation on agricultural subsidies and the critical reception towards these policies. This section is followed by a discussion on the similarities between the US and the EU’s agricultural policies in the context of benefits to farmers and influences on income. Lastly, the effects of agricultural subsidies on famers, from the dimension of family budgets and taxes are given substantial attention. Economic Theory on Subsidies and Taxes To understand the economic theory on subsidies and taxes, one needs to be aware of the function of subsidy and tax accords within the area of global trade pact. One will get to understand why the government upholds such accords as well as identifying the most preferred way of handling the subsidies within the global trading schemes. Therefore, studies pertaining to the economic impact of subsidies have provoked mixed reactions from economists. For instance, Krishna and Panagariya (2009) argue that, â€Å"subsidies are a form of protectionism or trade barrier by making domestic goods and services artificially competitive against imports† (OECD, 2006, p.236). Such protectionism impairs the ability of consumers to consider and select imported goods and services, in their pursuit of alternative goods that are produced outside a nation’s boundaries through unethical or illegal channels (Anderson 2005, p.165). In the economic sense, subsidies are unethical because they distort the market and impose higher economic costs. In addition to this case, there are different types of subsides that have been outlined. Amegashie identifies employment subsidies, production subsidies and export subsidies as three that are granted by governmental or non-governmental organisations (Amegashie 2006, p.8). Export subsidies take the form of financial support that is offered by a government to exported products and services, in an effort to improve a nation’s balance of payments (Amegashie 2006, p.8). From an agricultural product context, exporting subsidies is significant in nations whose GDP is mainly derived this particular source. However, the impact of export subsidies varies.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on A Critical Assessment of the Agricultural Subsidies of the United States of America (US) and the European Union (EU) specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For instance, the Court of Auditors (2003) argues that, as evidenced by the case of the EU, export subsidies may result inartificially low prices of subsidised products. Furthermore, fluctuations in milk production costs may also occur, as shown in the graph below. Fig 1: Milk products production cost fluctuations in the EU in comparison to other parts of the world Source: Weers and Hemme (2012, p.13) Production subsidies have a key role to play when it comes to product yields. Production subsidies â€Å"encourage suppliers to increase the output of particular products by partially offsetting the production costs or losses† (Krishna Panagariya, 2009, p.237). Thus, the chief aim is to create a means of expansion for the production of certain products at much lower prices than the market forces would make possible (Mankiw, 1997). In doing so, governments also offer their support to consumers of the produced products. In an agricultural context, production subsides may also be provided by offering technical support and financial assistance to help create new agricultural firms and processing plants, possibly on a regional basis. Moreover, employment subsides and incentives, such as social security benefits, are sometimes offered by governments to boost employment levels in certain regions and for certain industries (Szymanski Valletti, 2005). They may also con duct research into new areas of development that would lead to more absorption of unemployed persons.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Although subsidies may be seen as a plausible way of regulating and controlling the markets, they attract controversies over their overall impacts on the performance of a nation’s economy. Subsidies influence competitive equilibrium, and from the fundamental principles of supply/demand relationships, particularly in cases where the demand for a given product goes beyond the supply, prices normally fall. Consequently, reduction of goods supplied to levels below the equilibrium quantity results in price hikes (Covey et al., 2007, P.41). Supposing that the bazaar for any product operates flawlessly â€Å"at the competitive equilibrium, the overall effect of subsidies is to increase the supply of goods and services to levels above the equilibrium quantity† (Kym Will 2011, P.1303). This move leads to an increase of costs beyond corresponding gains of the subsidy. That is, the amount of increase is proportionate to the size of the injected subsidy and hence a â€Å"market failure or inefficiency† (Jerome et al. 2006, p.16). For this reason, some economists claim that subsidies are undesirable in a competitive market. This claim is particularly significant in cases where foreign competition is desired. In support of this assertion, Westcott and Young (2004) argue that, instead of lowering the prices of goods and services, subsides make goods produced within a nation, cheaper in comparison to those produced in the foreign nations; hence incredibly reducing foreign competition. In the context of agricultural goods, giving subsidies(especially in the developing nations) implies that such nations are barred from engaging in the international trade in a more competitive manner, since they receive substantially lower prices on products traded on the global market. In economic theory, offering subsidies in the form of tax wavering is considered as an attempt of protectionism (Wyatt Ashok, 2010, p.1927). In such scenarios, market distortion occurs, acc ompanied by social welfare reductions. On the grounds of economic logic, World Bank policies advocate the total removal of subsidies offered by the developing nations, even though it has no mandate to enforce this removal (Westcott Young, 2004, p.11). The impact includes a reduction in revenue generated by producers operating in foreign nations, which can cause tension between the European Union and the United States, and the nations in the developing world that are known to be offering economic stimuli in the form of subsidies. The developing nations protect their local industries against the influx of foreign products. Such foreign products cost less in the developing nations’ markets due to the economies of scale in the production processes and techniques for production used in the developed world’s industries. In summary, subsidies can provide a short-term solution to an industry. However, on a long-term basis, they end up being unethical, often evolving into nega tive effects (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2007, p. 26) Comparison of the US and the EU Agricultural Policies The subject of subsidies and tax reduction for agricultural products is approached from different directions, yet in similar ways for both the EU and the US. Subsidising the agricultural sector is done with the ultimate objective of boosting aggregate demand or investment in the agricultural sector (Becker 2002). In accordance to the theory of economics of subsidies, such an attempt causes the cost of production for agricultural products to be lowered for both the US and the EU. Consequently, making products become cheaper than importing them. In both the US and the EU, it is appreciated that the removal of subsidies has the impact of dampening economic activities in the agricultural sector. This blow is dependent to certain issues associated with the agricultural sector budget balance. Appreciating the role of subsidies and taxes in shaping the agr icultural sector in the US and the EU warrants consideration of the differences and similarities between their different approaches to agricultural subsidies. Differences between the US and the EU agricultural Policies Legislation on Agricultural Subsidies The US and the EU have put policies in place that encourage their farmers to produce certain agricultural products at much lower costs, in comparison to the global costs of such products (Alston 2008). Although there have been less legislative efforts to encourage the production of various products in the EU, the governing bodies have implemented policies that ensure farmers receive subsidies for producing certain commodities such as dairy products (Alston 2008). In similar fashion, the US has created a process to facilitate subsidy offers for farmers that produce various products, mainly cotton, through legislation such as the 2010 Farm Bill (Babcock 2007. Subsidising US cotton results in low global market prices of the crop, whe rein levels of making cotton produced elsewhere is unsustainable in the market. Hence, many nations are opposed to the legislation provided in the Farm Bill 2002. For instance, Brazil challenged the US subsidies for cotton farmers at the World Trade Organisation (WTO), stating that this distorted the cotton market at an international level. They further argued that it encouraged an increase in income to large-scale farmers at the advantage of the small-scale and poor farmers in the developing world. This case lasted from 2002 to 2008, when it was concluded with Brazil being the victor. In support of this argument, Riedl (2008, p.316) believes that policies encouraging subsidising of the agricultural products in both the EU and the US products have an opposite impact. However, despite the opposition to the continued indirect funding of the EU and the US farmers through subsidies, Summer (2013) proposes that it is imperative to stop offering direct incentives for production, because s uch a strategy for boosting production makes farmers in the US and the EU compete unfairly with others across the globe. Critical Reception of Agricultural Policies From the above arguments, subsidies on agricultural products, especially by major global giant producers like the EU and the US, are not received in good faith within the international arena. In relation to this, LaBorde (2013) postulates, â€Å"a series of weather-related shocks in 2012- including severe droughts in Central Asia, Eastern Europe, and the United States- contributed to global food prices remaining high for a fifth consecutive year† (LaBorde 2013, Para.5). Although the EU and the US do provide subsidies to different agricultural products, they have refused to heed to these calls. Rather, they have opted to increase subsidies on agricultural sectors domestically. Such strategies have long-term implications on the worldwide food systems, coupled with impairing food securities in the developing nations (Babcock, 2007: Alston, 2008). Similarities between the US and the EU Agricultural Policies Benefits to Farmers According to Westcott and Young (2004), one of the major similarities between subsidies of the agricultural sectors in both the US and the EU is that subsidising has resulted in lowering the costs of production. In fact, â€Å"in 2005, the US government gave farmers agricultural subsidies amounting to$14 billion and in the European Union, dairy farmers received subsidies amounting to $47 billion† (Westcott Young 2004). This equates to more than the sum earned by every person (on average) in the developing nations. This explicitly implies that the US and the EU farmers were able to produce their products much cheaper than those outside of their countries because of government subsidies. Consequently, based on research by Drabenstott (2008), and the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service’s (2007), foreign traders found it difficult to introd uce their products into these two markets, since the price of the subsidised farm products were lower than those they could sell their products at, even for them to break even. Although such subsidies resulted in stimulation of, and therefore, over-production of subsidised agricultural sector products, farmers in the US and EU benefited in that they were able to place their surplus products in the market in higher quantities. This case meant that the consumption of the products also increased. Influences on Income In 2002, cotton farmers in America earned much of their revenues from the country’s administration through subsidies brought into force under provisions of the Farm Bill (Morgan, Gaul, Cohen 2009). These subsides also stimulated overproduction of cotton in 2002. Much of this excess production was sold to the global markets at much lower prices well below the break-even points of cotton farmers in the developing world. Similarly, in the EU, in 2004,  £3.30 was spe nt in the exportation of sugar worth £1(Oxfam International 2004, p.39). Although, the subsidies had a positive impact on the incomes earned by EU farmers, global market distortions occurred. Subsidies for agricultural products in the US and the EU have an overall impact of protecting revenue losses that are likely to be encountered by EU and the US farmers. However, in the US for instance, farm subsidies favour large-scale farmers over small-scale ones, with non-farm families’ incomes being negatively impacted (see Fig 2). This situation is inappropriate, especially considering that most of the farm families are located in rural areas where the cost of living is lower. Fig 2: Differences between incomes for large farms and small farms in the US Source: (Becker 2002) Effects of Agricultural Subsidies on Famers Family Budgets Farm policies that are realised through subsidies are meant to provide relief on farmers’ household budgets. Unfortunately, they produce opposi te effects, as Becker (2002) states they, â€Å"harm family farmers by excluding them from most subsidies, encouraging the merging of family farms, and raising land values to levels that prevent young people from entering farming† (p.17). This suggests that agricultural subsidies fail to provide relief to the struggling farmers, especially those who are new to farming, because overproduction results in low prices of agricultural products. In turn, the net effect on the capacity to fund family budgets is minimal. Tax Farm subsidies have the overall impact of increasing the cost of living through increased taxes. As the economy for both the US and the EU continues to boom, congress also increases the subsidies offered to farms. Wyatt and Ashok (2010) support this assertion by claiming, â€Å"After averaging less than $14 billion per year during the 1990s, annual farm subsidies have topped $25 billion in the current decade since the passage of the 2002 farm bill, the most expen sive farm bill in American history† (Wyatt Ashok 2010, p.1931). This argument implies that all spending by the federal governments has to be funded by taxes levied from citizens. In the US, Morgan, Gaul, and Cohen (2009) put the costs of farm subsidies at $216 per household in the form of yearly taxes, with an additional extra charging of $104 per household as escalated food prices. Conclusion The central purpose for enacting farm subsidy policies is centred on the need for alleviating poverty among rural farmers, and provision of food security by encouraging over production. Noting this purpose, the paper argues that scrutiny of the impact towards agricultural subsidies from an economic perspective, fails to contend with this aim. This is because such policies result to disadvantaging small-scale farmers outside the EU and the US, since the subsidies result in over production. The repercussion is to lower the prices of products in the global market, with the result that farm ers’ operations in other nations without the subsidies never break even. Within the US and the EU, subsidies create an imbalance of income between families that own farms and those that do not. Agricultural subsidies make families that own farms to earn higher incomes compared to those that do not own farms, yet families owning farms live in the rural areas where the cost of living is low. Hence, overall, farm subsidies have negative impacts on a nation’s economy, even though farmers (especially large-scale farmers) benefit incredibly from higher incomes. The underlying issue however, is that this is achieved at the expense of the smaller farmers operating in the same global market, who do not enjoy farm subsidies. References Alston, J 2008, Lessons from Agricultural Policy Reform in Other Countries: The 2007 Farm Bill and Beyond, American Enterprise Institute, New York. Amegashie, A 2006, ‘The Economics of Subsidies’, Crossroads, vol. 6 no.2, pp. 7-15. An derson, J 2005, ‘Tariff Index Theory’, Review of International Economics, vol. 3 no. 2, pp. 156-173. Babcock, B 2007, Money for Nothing: Acreage and Price Impacts of U.S. Commodity Policy for Corn, Soybeans, Wheat, Cotton, and Rice in American Enterprise Institute, The 2007 Farm Bill and Beyond, AEI Press, Washington, D.C. Becker, E 2002, ‘Land Rich in Subsidies and Poor in Much Else’, The New York Times, January 22, pp.17-18. Chapman, D, Foskett, K, Clarke, M 2006, ‘How Savvy Growers Can Double, or Triple, Subsidy Dollars’, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, vol. 2 no.1, pp. 121-127. Court of Auditors 2003, Special Report no 9/2003 concerning the system for setting the rates of subsidy on exports of agricultural products (export refunds), together with the Commission’s replies, Court of Auditors, London. Covey, T et al. 2007, Agriculture Income and Finance Outlook, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, New York. Dra benstott, M 2008, ‘Do Farm Payments Promote Rural Economic Growth? Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, Centre for the Study of Rural America’, The Main Street Economist, vol. 8 no. 1, pp. 57-61. Jerome, M, Stam, D, Milkove, L, George, B 2006, Indicators of Financial Stress in Agriculture Reported by Agri ­cultural Banks, 1982-99 AIS-74, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Krishna, P Panagariya, A 2009, ‘A Unification of Second Best Results in International Trade’, Journal of International Economics, vol. 52 no. 2, pp. 235-257. Kym, A Will, M 2011, ‘Agricultural Trade Reform and the Doha Development Agenda’, The World Economy, vol. 28 no. 9, pp. 1301–1327. LaBorde, D 2013, The hidden cost of US and EU farm subsidies, ifpri.org/blog/hidden-costs-us-and-eu-farm-subsidies Mankiw, N 1997, Principles of economics, Harcourt Brace, Fort Worth. Morgan, D, Gaul, G, Cohen, S 2009, ‘Farm Program Pays $1.3 Billion to People Who Dont Farm’, The Washington Post, vol. 5 no. 2, pp. 99-103. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2006, Agricultural Policies in OECD Countries: At a Glance, OECD Publishing, Paris. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development 2007, Subsidy Reform and Sustainable Development, OECD, Paris. Oxfam International 2004, ‘A Sweeter Future? The potential for EU sugar reform to contribute to poverty reduction in southern Africa’, Oxfam Briefing Paper No. 70. November 2004, pp. 39-40. Riedl, B 2008, ‘How Farm Subsidies Harm Taxpayers, Consumers, and Farmers, European’, Journal of Economics, vol. 3 no. 2, pp. 315-321. Summer, D 2013, Effects of Farm Subsidies for the Rich on Poor Farmers, North Western University, California. Szymanski, S Valletti, T 2005, ‘Incentive Effects of Second Prises’, European Journal of Political Economy, vol. 2 no. 1, pp. 467-481. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, 2007, Food Expenditures by Families and Individuals as a Share of Disposable Personal Income data, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Weers, A Hemme, T 2012, Global Review-The Supply of Milk and Dairy Products, Wilhelmitorwall, IFCN Dairy Network. Westcott, P Young, E 2004, U.S. Farm Program Benefits: Links to Planting Decisions and Agricultural Markets, U.S. Department of Agriculture, New York. Wyatt , T Ashok, M 2010, ‘Farm Household Income and Transfer Efficiency: An Evaluation of United States Farm Program Payments’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, vol. 91 no. 5, pp. 1926–1937.